Four proto-oncogenes commonly associated with well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma, rearranged during transfection (RET)/papillary thyroid cancer, BRAF, RAS, and PAX8/peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-γ, may carry diagnostic and prognostic significance. These oncogenes can be used to improve the diagnosis and management of well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Limited therapeutic options are available for patients with metastatic well-differentiated thyroid cancer, necessitating the development of novel therapies. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)- and RET-directed therapies such as sorafenib, motesanib, and sunitinib have been shown to be the most effective at inducing clinical responses and stabilizing the disease process. Further clinical trials of these therapeutic agents may soon change the management of thyroid cancer.

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Thyroid cancer is increasing all over the world. The exact cause of this increase is still debated and there are conflicting reports. Sophisticated molecular studies suggest that environmental chemicals may have effects of thyroid carcinogenesis. The development of powerful molecular biology techniques has enabled targeted next-generation sequencing for detection of mutations in thyroid cancer, and this technique can make a specific diagnosis of thyroid cancer in cytologically indeterminate cases. The initial treatment of well-differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC) is surgery followed by radioiodine remnant ablation. However, further studies are needed to determine the optimal dosage of radioactive iodine for DTC patients with lateral neck metastasis. DTC is an indolent tumor and may cause death even decades later. Thus, long-term follow-up is mandatory. Recently, dynamic risk stratification (DRS) has begun to use stimulated thyroglobulin level at 1 year after the initial treatment and restratified the risk in accordance with the response to the initial treatment. This DRS strategy accurately predicts disease free survival and can be widely used in daily clinical settings. For the iodine refractory metastatic disease, redifferentiation therapy and targeted therapy are two promising alternative treatments. Sorafenib is the first approved agent for the treatment of progressive iodine refractory advanced thyroid cancer in Korea and may be very helpful for radioactive-refractory locally advanced or metastatic DTC. Selumetinib may be an effective redifferentiating agent and could be used within several years.

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Since the adoption of the Da Vinci robotic system for remote access thyroid surgery, robotic thyroidectomy (RT) has become a popular surgical option for patients who want to avoid neck scars. Surgeons in South Korea pioneered this surgical technique and have reported successful outcomes. Although many studies have reported that RT is a feasible and safe therapeutic alternative, concerns over the surgical and oncological safety of RT remain. This article reviews the advantages and disadvantages of RT and compares the surgical safety and oncological completeness of RT with conventional open thyroidectomy.

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Iodide uptake across the membranes of thyroid follicular cells and cancer cells occurs through an active transport process mediated by the sodium-iodide symporter (NIS). The rat and human NIS-coding genes were cloned and identified in 1996. Evaluation of NIS gene and protein expression is critical for the management of thyroid cancer, and several approaches to increase NIS levels have been tried. Identification of the NIS gene has provided a means of expanding its role in radionuclide therapy and molecular target-specific theragnosis (therapy and diagnosis using the same molecular target). In this article, we describe the relationship between NIS expression and the thyroid carcinoma treatment using I-131 and alternative therapeutic approaches.

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Iodine is a micronutrient essential for the production of thyroid hormones. Iodine deficiency is the most common cause of preventable mental impairment worldwide. Universal salt iodization (USI) has been introduced in many countries as a cost-effective and sustainable way to eliminate iodine deficiency disorders for more than 25 years. Currently, the relationship between USI and iodine excess has attracted more attention. Iodine excess can lead to hypothyroidism and autoimmune thyroiditis, especially for susceptible populations with recurring thyroid disease, the elderly, fetuses, and neonates. Nationwide USI was introduced in China in 1996. This review focused on the effects of iodine excess worldwide and particularly in China.

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