Endocrinology and Metabolism

Review Article

Diabetes, obesity and metabolism
SGLT2 Inhibitors as Systemic Metabolic Modulators: Linking Glucose Excretion to Liver Function Restoration: Seung Wan Noh, Han Sol Ryu, Yong-Ho Kim, Byung-Chul Oh; Endocrinol Metab. 2025;40(6):851-865. Published online December 24, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2025.2786

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Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors have emerged as paradigm-shifting therapeutics that extend beyond glycemic regulation, to conferring profound hepatometabolic benefits. This review delineates the multifaceted mechanisms underlying metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), with an emphasis on systemic metabolic remodeling, mitochondrial protection, and intracellular calcium restoration. By promoting glucosuria-induced energy depletion, SGLT2 inhibition alleviates insulin resistance, suppresses hepatic lipogenesis, and activates adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK)–sirtuin 1 (SIRT1)–peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) coactivator-1α pathways that reprogram hepatocellular metabolism toward achieving lipid oxidation and autophagy. Mechanistically, SGLT2 inhibitors restore intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis via sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase 2 (SERCA2) activation, mitigating endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and normalizing Ca²⁺–phosphoinositide (PIP)–protein kinase B (AKT) signaling, collectively reinforcing insulin responsiveness and ER-mitochondrial crosstalk. Clinically, these effects translate into consistently reducing hepatic fat, aminotransferases, and fibrosis markers in both diabetic and nondiabetic patients with MASLD. Furthermore, SGLT2 inhibitors uniquely integrate renal energy regulation with hepatic resilience through the Ca²⁺–PIP–SERCA axis, positioning them as prototype systemic modulators of metabolic homeostasis. Future translational efforts should refine patient stratification using metabolomic and Ca²⁺-imaging biomarkers to delineate therapeutic responders and advance next-generation SGLT2 analogs targeting Ca²⁺-dependent metabolic signaling. Collectively, SGLT2 inhibitors represent a new metabolic therapeutic class that unify glucose, lipid, and Ca²⁺ regulation to restore hepatocellular functions in metabolic liver diseases.

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Immune Determinants of MASLD Progression: From Immunometabolic Reprogramming to Fibrotic Transformation
Senping Xu, Zhaoshan Zhang, Zhongquan Zhou, Jiawei Guo
Biology.2026; 15(2): 148. CrossRef

Original Articles

Diabetes, obesity and metabolism
Alterations in Adipose Tissue and Adipokines in Heterozygous APE1/Ref-1 Deficient Mice: Eun-Ok Lee, Hao Jin, Sungmin Kim, Hee Kyoung Joo, Yu Ran Lee, Soo Yeon An, Shuyu Piao, Kwon Ho Lee, Byeong Hwa Jeon; Endocrinol Metab. 2024;39(6):932-945. Published online November 20, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2024.2061

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material PubReader ePub: Background
The role of apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1/redox factor-1 (APE1/Ref-1) in adipose tissue remains poorly understood. This study investigates adipose tissue dysfunction in heterozygous APE1/Ref-1 deficiency (APE1/Ref-1^+/-) mice, focusing on changes in adipocyte physiology, oxidative stress, adipokine regulation, and adipose tissue distribution.
Methods
APE1/Ref-1 mRNA and protein levels in white adipose tissue (WAT) were measured in APE1/Ref-1^+/- mice, compared to their wild-type (APE1/Ref-1+/+) controls. Oxidative stress was assessed by evaluating reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Histological and immunohistochemical analyses were conducted to observe adipocyte size and macrophage infiltration of WAT. Adipokine expression was measured, and micro-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to quantify abdominal fat volumes.
Results
APE1/Ref-1^+/- mice exhibited significant reductions in APE1/Ref-1 mRNA and protein levels in WAT and liver tissue. These mice also showed elevated ROS levels, suggesting a regulatory role for APE1/Ref-1 in oxidative stress in WAT and liver. Histological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed hypertrophic adipocytes and macrophage infiltration in WAT, while Oil Red O staining demonstrated enhanced ectopic fat deposition in the liver of APE1/Ref-1^+/- mice. These mice also displayed altered adipokine expression, with decreased adiponectin and increased leptin levels in the WAT, along with corresponding alterations in plasma levels. Despite no significant changes in overall body weight, microMRI assessments demonstrated a significant increase in visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fat volumes in APE1/Ref-1^+/- mice.
Conclusion
APE1/Ref-1 is crucial in adipokine regulation and mitigating oxidative stress. These findings suggest its involvement in adipose tissue dysfunction, highlighting its potential impact on abdominal fat distribution and its implications for obesity and oxidative stress-related conditions.

Miscellaneous
Lipid Variability Induces Endothelial Dysfunction by Increasing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress: Marie Rhee, Joonyub Lee, Eun Young Lee, Kun-Ho Yoon, Seung-Hwan Lee; Endocrinol Metab. 2024;39(3):511-520. Published online May 16, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2023.1915

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Background
This study investigates the impact of fluctuating lipid levels on endothelial dysfunction.
Methods
Human aortic and umbilical vein endothelial cells were cultured under varying palmitic acid (PA) concentrations: 0, 50, and 100 μM, and in a variability group alternating between 0 and 100 μM PA every 8 hours for 48 hours. In the lipid variability group, cells were exposed to 100 μM PA during the final 8 hours before analysis. We assessed inflammation using real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and cytokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels with dichlorofluorescin diacetate assay; mitochondrial function through oxygen consumption rates via XF24 flux analyzer; and endothelial cell functionality via wound healing and cell adhesion assays. Cell viability was evaluated using the MTT assay.
Results
Variable PA levels significantly upregulated inflammatory genes and adhesion molecules (Il6, Mcp1, Icam, Vcam, E-selectin, iNos) at both transcriptomic and protein levels in human endothelial cells. Oscillating lipid levels reduced basal respiration, adenosine triphosphate synthesis, and maximal respiration, indicating mitochondrial dysfunction. This lipid variability also elevated ROS levels, contributing to a chronic inflammatory state. Functionally, these changes impaired cell migration and increased monocyte adhesion, and induced endothelial apoptosis, evidenced by reduced cell viability, increased BAX, and decreased BCL2 expression.
Conclusion
Lipid variability induce endothelial dysfunction by elevating inflammation and oxidative stress, providing mechanistic insights into how lipid variability increases cardiovascular risk.

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Miscellaneous
AM1638, a GPR40-Full Agonist, Inhibited Palmitate- Induced ROS Production and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, Enhancing HUVEC Viability in an NRF2-Dependent Manner: Hwan-Jin Hwang, Joo Won Kim, SukHwan Yun, Min Jeong Park, Eyun Song, Sooyeon Jang, Ahreum Jang, Kyung Mook Choi, Sei Hyun Baik, Hye Jin Yoo; Endocrinol Metab. 2023;38(6):760-769. Published online November 2, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2023.1774

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Background
G protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40) is a key molecule in diabetes and fatty liver, but its role in endothelial dysfunction remains unclear. Our objective in this study was to determine whether GPR40 agonists protect endothelial cells against palmitatemediated oxidative stress.
Methods
Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were used to investigate effects of various GPR40 agonists on vascular endothelium.
Results
In HUVECs, AM1638, a GPR40-full agonist, enhanced nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (NRF2) translocation to the nucleus and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression, which blocked palmitate-induced superoxide production. Those antioxidant effects were not detected after treatment with LY2922470 or TAK875, GPR40-partial agonists, suggesting that GPR40 regulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) removal in a ligand-dependent manner. We also found that palmitate-induced CCAAT/enhancer‐binding protein homologous protein expression; X-box binding protein-1 splicing, nuclear condensation, and fragmentation; and caspase-3 cleavage were all blocked in an NRF2-dependent manner after AM1638 treatment. Both LY2922470 and TAK875 also improved cell viability independent of the NRF2/ROS pathway by reducing palmitate-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress and nuclear damage. GPR40 agonists thus have beneficial effects against palmitate in HUVECs. In particular, AM1638 reduced palmitate-induced superoxide production and cytotoxicity in an NRF2/HO-1 dependent manner.
Conclusion
GPR40 could be developed as a good therapeutic target to prevent or treat cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis.

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Review Article

Thyroid
Deiodinases and the Three Types of Thyroid Hormone Deiodination Reactions: Laura Sabatino, Cristina Vassalle, Cristina Del Seppia, Giorgio Iervasi; Endocrinol Metab. 2021;36(5):952-964. Published online October 21, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2021.1198

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Thyroid hormone (TH) signaling is strictly regulated by iodothyronine deiodinase activity, which both preserves the circulating levels of the biologically active triiodothyronine (T3) and regulates TH homeostasis at the local level, in a cell- and time-dependent manner. Three deiodinases have been identified—namely iodothyronine deiodinase 1 (DIO1), DIO2, and DIO3—that differ in their catalytic properties and tissue distribution. The deiodinases represent a dynamic system that changes in the different stages of life according to their functions and roles in various cell types and tissues. Deiodinase activity at the tissue level permits cell-targeted fine regulation of TH homeostasis, mediating the activation (DIO1 and DIO2) and inactivation (DIO3) of THs. Deiodinase homeostasis is the driving force that leads T3-target cells towards customized TH signaling, which takes into account both the hormonal circulating levels and the tissue-specific response. This review analyzes the complex role of deiodinases in physiological and pathological contexts, exploring new challenges and opportunities deriving from a deeper knowledge of the dynamics underlying their roles and functions.

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Original Articles

Adrenal Gland
Aldosterone Inhibits In Vitro Myogenesis by Increasing Intracellular Oxidative Stress via Mineralocorticoid Receptor: Jin Young Lee, Da Ae Kim, Eunah Choi, Yun Sun Lee, So Jeong Park, Beom-Jun Kim; Endocrinol Metab. 2021;36(4):865-874. Published online July 30, 2021; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2021.1108

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Abstract PDF PubReader ePub

Background
Despite clinical evidence indicating poor muscle health in subjects with primary aldosteronism (PA), it is still unclear whether the role of aldosterone in muscle metabolism is direct or mediated indirectly via factors, such as electrolyte imbalance or impaired glucose uptake. As one approach to clarify this issue, we investigated the effect of aldosterone on in vitro myogenesis and the potential mechanism explaining it.
Methods
Myogenesis was induced in mouse C2C12 myoblasts with 2% horse serum. Immunofluorescence, quantitative reversetranscription polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, viability, and migration analyses were performed for experimental research.
Results
Recombinant aldosterone treatment suppressed muscle differentiation from mouse C2C12 myoblasts in a dose-dependent manner, and consistently reduced the expression of myogenic differentiation markers. Furthermore, aldosterone significantly increased intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in myotubes, and treatment with N-acetyl cysteine, a potent biological thiol antioxidant, reversed the decrease of myotube area, myotube area per myotube, nucleus number per myotube, and fusion index due to aldosterone through decreasing oxidative stress. A binding enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay confirmed that mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) interacted with aldosterone in C2C12 myoblasts, while eplerenone, an MR inhibitor, blocked aldosterone-stimulated intracellular ROS generation during myogenesis and markedly attenuated the suppression of in vitro myogenesis by aldosterone.
Conclusion
These findings support the hypothesis that hypersecretion of aldosterone, like PA, directly contributes to muscular deterioration and suggest that antioxidants and/or MR antagonists could be effective therapeutic options to reduce the risk of sarcopenia in these patients.

Citations

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Diabetes
Pioglitazone Attenuates Palmitate-Induced Inflammation and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in Pancreatic β-Cells: Seok-Woo Hong, Jinmi Lee, Jung Hwan Cho, Hyemi Kwon, Se Eun Park, Eun-Jung Rhee, Cheol-Young Park, Ki-Won Oh, Sung-Woo Park, Won-Young Lee; Endocrinol Metab. 2018;33(1):105-113. Published online March 21, 2018; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2018.33.1.105

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Background

The nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activator gamma (PPARγ) is a useful therapeutic target for obesity and diabetes, but its role in protecting β-cell function and viability is unclear.

Methods

To identify the potential functions of PPARγ in β-cells, we treated mouse insulinoma 6 (MIN6) cells with the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone in conditions of lipotoxicity, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and inflammation.

Results

Palmitate-treated cells incubated with pioglitazone exhibited significant improvements in glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and the repression of apoptosis, as shown by decreased caspase-3 cleavage and poly (adenosine diphosphate [ADP]-ribose) polymerase activity. Pioglitazone also reversed the palmitate-induced expression of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 6 [IL-6], and IL-1β) and ER stress markers (phosphor-eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α, glucose-regulated protein 78 [GRP78], cleaved-activating transcription factor 6 [ATF6], and C/EBP homologous protein [CHOP]), and pioglitazone significantly attenuated inflammation and ER stress in lipopolysaccharide- or tunicamycin-treated MIN6 cells. The protective effect of pioglitazone was also tested in pancreatic islets from high-fat-fed KK-Ay mice administered 0.02% (wt/wt) pioglitazone or vehicle for 6 weeks. Pioglitazone remarkably reduced the expression of ATF6α, GRP78, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, prevented α-cell infiltration into the pancreatic islets, and upregulated glucose transporter 2 (Glut2) expression in β-cells. Moreover, the preservation of β-cells by pioglitazone was accompanied by a significant reduction of blood glucose levels.

Conclusion

Altogether, these results support the proposal that PPARγ agonists not only suppress insulin resistance, but also prevent β-cell impairment via protection against ER stress and inflammation. The activation of PPARγ might be a new therapeutic approach for improving β-cell survival and insulin secretion in patients with diabetes mellitus

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Review Articles

Diabetes-Related Cardiac Dysfunction: Lamario J. Williams, Brenna G. Nye, Adam R. Wende; Endocrinol Metab. 2017;32(2):171-179. Published online June 23, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2017.32.2.171

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Abstract PDF PubReader ePub

The proposal that diabetes plays a role in the development of heart failure is supported by the increased risk associated with this disease, even after correcting for all other known risk factors. However, the precise mechanisms contributing to the condition referred to as diabetic cardiomyopathy have remained elusive, as does defining the disease itself. Decades of study have defined numerous potential factors that each contribute to disease susceptibility, progression, and severity. Many recent detailed reviews have been published on mechanisms involving insulin resistance, dysregulation of microRNAs, and increased reactive oxygen species, as well as causes including both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. As such, the focus of the current review is to highlight aspects of each of these topics and to provide specific examples of recent advances in each area.

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Thyroid
Clinical Relevance of Environmental Factors in the Pathogenesis of Autoimmune Thyroid Disease: Wilmar M. Wiersinga; Endocrinol Metab. 2016;31(2):213-222. Published online May 13, 2016; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2016.31.2.213

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Genetic factors contribute for about 70% to 80% and environmental factors for about 20% to 30% to the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD). Relatives of AITD patients carry a risk to contract AITD themselves. The 5-year risk can be quantified by the so-called Thyroid Events Amsterdam-score, based on serum thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroid peroxidase (TPO)-antibodies and family history. Subjects at risk may ask what they can do to prevent development of AITD. This review summarizes what is known about modulation of exposure to environmental factors in terms of AITD prevention. To stop smoking decreases the risk on Graves disease but increases the risk on Hashimoto disease. Moderate alcohol intake provides some protection against both Graves and Hashimoto disease. Low selenium intake is associated with a higher prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity, but evidence that selenium supplementation may lower TPO antibodies and prevent subclinical hypothyroidism remains inconclusive. Low serum vitamin D levels are associated with a higher prevalence of TPO antibodies, but intervention studies with extra vitamin D have not been done yet. Stress may provoke Graves hyperthyroidism but not Hashimoto thyroiditis. Estrogen use have been linked to a lower prevalence of Graves disease. The postpartum period is associated with an increased risk of AITD. Taking together, preventive interventions to diminish the risk of AITD are few, not always feasible, and probably of limited efficacy.

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Original Articles

Endocrine Research
The Role of Nuclear Factor-E2-Related Factor 1 in the Oxidative Stress Response in MC3T3-E1 Osteoblastic Cells: So Young Park, Sung Hoon Kim, Hyun Koo Yoon, Chang Hoon Yim, Sung-Kil Lim; Endocrinol Metab. 2016;31(2):336-342. Published online April 25, 2016; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2016.31.2.336

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Background

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants are associated with maintenance of cellular function and metabolism. Nuclear factor-E2-related factor 1 (NFE2L1, Nrf1) is known to regulate the expression of a number of genes involved in oxidative stress and inflammation. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of NFE2L1 on the response to oxidative stress in osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells.

Methods

The murine calvaria-derived MC3T3-E1 cell line was exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for oxidative stress induction. NFE2L1 effects were evaluated using small interfering RNA (siRNA) for NFE2L1 mRNA. ROS generation and the levels of known antioxidant enzyme genes were assayed.

Results

NFE2L1 expression was significantly increased 2.4-fold compared to the control group at 10 µg/mL LPS in MC3T3-E1 cells (P<0.05). LPS increased formation of intracellular ROS in MC3T3-E1 cells. NFE2L1 knockdown led to an additional increase of ROS (20%) in the group transfected with NFE2L1 siRNA compared with the control group under LPS stimulation (P<0.05). RNA interference of NFE2L1 suppressed the expression of antioxidant genes including metallothionein 2, glutamatecysteine ligase catalytic subunit, and glutathione peroxidase 1 in LPS-treated MC3T3-E1 cells.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that NFE2L1 may have a distinct role in the regulation of antioxidant enzymes under inflammation-induced oxidative stress in MC3T3-E1 osteoblastic cells.

Citations

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Obesity and Metabolism
Exendin-4 Inhibits the Expression of SEPP1 and Fetuin-A via Improvement of Palmitic Acid-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress by AMPK: Jinmi Lee, Seok-Woo Hong, Se Eun Park, Eun-Jung Rhee, Cheol-Young Park, Ki-Won Oh, Sung-Woo Park, Won-Young Lee; Endocrinol Metab. 2015;30(2):177-184. Published online June 30, 2015; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2015.30.2.177

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Background

Selenoprotein P (SEPP1) and fetuin-A, both circulating liver-derived glycoproteins, are novel biomarkers for insulin resistance and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. However, the effect of exendin-4 (Ex-4), a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, on the expression of hepatokines, SEPP1, and fetuin-A, is unknown.

Methods

The human hepatoma cell line HepG2 was treated with palmitic acid (PA; 0.4 mM) and tunicamycin (tuni; 2ug/ml) with or without exendin-4 (100 nM) for 24 hours. The change in expression of PA-induced SEPP1, fetuin-A, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress markers by exendin-4 treatment were evaluated using quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. Transfection of cells with AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) small interfering RNA (siRNA) was performed to establish the effect of exendin-4-mediated AMPK in the regulation of SEPP1 and fetuin-A expression.

Results

Exendin-4 reduced the expression of SEPP1, fetuin-A, and ER stress markers including PKR-like ER kinase, inositol-requiring kinase 1α, activating transcription factor 6, and C/EBP homologous protein in HepG2 cells. Exendin-4 also reduced the expression of SEPP1 and fetuin-A in cells treated with tunicamycin, an ER stress inducer. In cells treated with the AMPK activator 5-aminoidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR), the expression of hepatic SEPP1 and fetuin-A were negatively related by AMPK, which is the target of exendin-4. In addition, exendin-4 treatment did not decrease SEPP1 and fetuin-A expression in cells transfected with AMPK siRNA.

Conclusion

These data suggest that exendin-4 can attenuate the expression of hepatic SEPP1 and fetuin-A via improvement of PA-induced ER stress by AMPK.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

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Obesity and Metabolism
Lipid Accumulation Product Is Associated with Insulin Resistance, Lipid Peroxidation, and Systemic Inflammation in Type 2 Diabetic Patients: Parvin Mirmiran, Zahra Bahadoran, Fereidoun Azizi; Endocrinol Metab. 2014;29(4):443-449. Published online December 29, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2014.29.4.443

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Background

Lipid accumulation product (LAP) is a novel biomarker of central lipid accumulation related to risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. In this study, we assessed the association of LAP with glucose homeostasis, lipid and lipid peroxidation, and subclinical systemic inflammation in diabetic patients.

Methods

Thirty-nine male and 47 female type 2 diabetic patients were assessed for anthropometrics and biochemical measurements. LAP was calculated as [waist circumference (cm)-65]×[triglycerides (mmol/L)] in men, and [waist circumference (cm)-58]×[triglycerides (mmol/L)] in women. Associations of LAP with fasting glucose, insulin, insulin resistance index, lipid and lipoprotein levels, malondialdehyde, and high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) were assessed.

Results

Mean age and LAP index were 53.6±9.6 and 51.9±31.2 years, respectively. After adjustments for age, sex and body mass index status, a significant positive correlation was observed between LAP index and fasting glucose (r=0.39, P<0.001), and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (r=0.31, P<0.05). After additional adjustment for fasting glucose levels, antidiabetic and antilipidemic drugs, the LAP index was also correlated to total cholesterol (r=0.45, P<0.001), high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels (r=-0.29, P<0.05), triglycerides to HDL-C ratio (r=0.89, P<0.001), malondialdehyde (r=0.65, P<0.001), and hs-CRP levels (r=0.27, P<0.05).

Conclusion

Higher central lipid accumulation in diabetic patients was related to higher insulin resistance, oxidative stress and systemic inflammation.

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Adrenal gland
Highly Palatable Food during Adolescence Improves Anxiety-Like Behaviors and Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Dysfunction in Rats that Experienced Neonatal Maternal Separation: Jong-Ho Lee, Jin Young Kim, Jeong Won Jahng; Endocrinol Metab. 2014;29(2):169-178. Published online June 26, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2014.29.2.169

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Background

This study was conducted to examine the effects of ad libitum consumption of highly palatable food (HPF) during adolescence on the adverse behavioral outcome of neonatal maternal separation.

Methods

Male Sprague-Dawley pups were separated from dam for 3 hours daily during the first 2 weeks of birth (maternal separation, MS) or left undisturbed (nonhandled, NH). Half of MS pups received free access to chocolate cookies in addition to ad libitum chow from postnatal day 28 (MS+HPF). Pups were subjected to behavioral tests during young adulthood. The plasma corticosterone response to stress challenge was analyzed by radioimmunoassay.

Results

Daily caloric intake and body weight gain did not differ among the experimental groups. Ambulatory activities were decreased defecation activity and rostral grooming were increased in MS controls (fed with chow only) compared with NH rats. MS controls spent less time in open arms, and more time in closed arms during the elevated plus maze test, than NH rats. Immobility duration during the forced swim test was increased in MS controls compared with NH rats. Cookie access normalized the behavioral scores of ambulatory and defecation activities and grooming, but not the scores during the elevated plus maze and swim tests in MS rats. Stress-induced corticosterone increase was blunted in MS rats fed with chow only, and cookie access normalized it.

Conclusion

Prolonged access to HPF during adolescence and youth partly improves anxiety-related, but not depressive, symptoms in rats that experienced neonatal maternal separation, possibly in relation with improved function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

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Functional Role of Parkin against Oxidative Stress in Neural Cells: Minyoung Hwang, Ja-Myong Lee, Younghwa Kim, Dongho Geum; Endocrinol Metab. 2014;29(1):62-69. Published online March 14, 2014; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2014.29.1.62

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Abstract PDF PubReader

Background

Parkinson disease (PD) is caused by selective cell death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. An early onset form of PD, autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism has been associated with a mutation in the parkin gene. The function of parkin is known to remove misfolding proteins and protect cell death. We aimed to investigate the role of parkin against oxidative stress in neuronal cells.

Methods

Parkin knockout embryonic stem cells (PKO ES cells) were differentiated into neurons by adherent monolayer culture method. Oxidative stress was induced by the treatment of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺) in neurons derived from wild type and PKO ES cells, and cell viability was examined by MTT assay. After exposure to MPP⁺, Tuj1-positive cell population was compared between PKO and wild type cells by fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis. The activated caspase3 protein level was also measured by Western blot analysis, FACS and immunocytochemistry.

Results

There was no difference in the efficiency of neuronal differentiation between wild type and PKO ES cells. After exposure to MPP⁺, no significant differences were found in cell viability and Tuj1-positive cell population between the two groups determined by MTT assay and FACS analysis, respectively. The activated caspase3 protein levels examined by Western blot analysis, FACS and immunocytochemistry were not changed in PKO cells compared with those of wild type cells after MPP⁺ treatment.

Conclusion

These results suggest that PKO neuronal cells including dopaminergic neurons are not sensitive to caspase3-dependent cell death pathway during the response against MPP⁺-induced oxidative stress.

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Adrenal gland
Effects of Chronic Restraint Stress on Body Weight, Food Intake, and Hypothalamic Gene Expressions in Mice: Joo Yeon Jeong, Dong Hoon Lee, Sang Soo Kang; Endocrinol Metab. 2013;28(4):288-296. Published online December 12, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2013.28.4.288

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Abstract PDF PubReader

Background

Stress affects body weight and food intake, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood.

Methods

We evaluated the changes in body weight and food intake of ICR male mice subjected to daily 2 hours restraint stress for 15 days. Hypothalamic gene expression profiling was analyzed by cDNA microarray.

Results

Daily body weight and food intake measurements revealed that both parameters decreased rapidly after initiating daily restraint stress. Body weights of stressed mice then remained significantly lower than the control body weights, even though food intake slowly recovered to 90% of the control intake at the end of the experiment. cDNA microarray analysis revealed that chronic restraint stress affects the expression of hypothalamic genes possibly related to body weight control. Since decreases of daily food intake and body weight were remarkable in days 1 to 4 of restraint, we examined the expression of food intake-related genes in the hypothalamus. During these periods, the expressions of ghrelin and pro-opiomelanocortin mRNA were significantly changed in mice undergoing restraint stress. Moreover, daily serum corticosterone levels gradually increased, while leptin levels significantly decreased.

Conclusion

The present study demonstrates that restraint stress affects body weight and food intake by initially modifying canonical food intake-related genes and then later modifying other genes involved in energy metabolism. These genetic changes appear to be mediated, at least in part, by corticosterone.

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Vitamin C supplementation during chronic variable stress exposure modulates contractile functions of testicular artery and sperm parameters in male Wistar rats
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A Systematic Review of In Vitro and In Vivo Radio Frequency Exposure Methods
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In vitro and in vivo studies of nanoparticles of chitosan-Pandanus tectorius fruit extract as new alternative treatment for hypercholesterolemia via Scavenger Receptor Class B type 1 pathway
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The Good, the Bad and the Unknown Aspects of Ghrelin in Stress Coping and Stress-Related Psychiatric Disorders
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Therapeutic Effects of Modified Gengnianchun Formula on Stress-Induced Diminished Ovarian Reserve Based on Experimental Approaches and Network Pharmacology

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Vitamin C protects against chronic social isolation stress-induced weight gain and depressive-like behavior in adult male rats
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Intermittent restraint-induced sympathetic activation attenuates hepatic steatosis and inflammation in a high-fat diet-fed mouse model
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Involvement of Hepatic SHIP2 and PI3K/Akt Signalling in the Regulation of Plasma Insulin by Xiaoyaosan in Chronic Immobilization-Stressed Rats
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miR-132/212 is induced by stress and its dysregulation triggers anxiety-related behavior
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Oxytocin involves in chronic stress-evoked melanoma metastasis via β-arrestin 2-mediated ERK signaling pathway
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Anxiolytic effects of γ-oryzanol in chronically- stressed mice are related to monoamine levels in the brain
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Centella asiaticaPrevents Increase of Hippocampal Tumor Necrosis Factor-αIndependently of Its Effect on Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Rat Model of Chronic Stress
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Chronic Stress Combined with a Fructose Diet Reduces Hypothalamic Insulin Signaling and Antioxidative Defense in Female Rats
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Ghrelin is a persistent biomarker for chronic stress exposure in adolescent rats and humans
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GLP-1 Can Protect Proinflammatory Cytokines Induced Beta Cell Apoptosis through the Ubiquitination.: Dong Mee Lim, Ju Young Kim, Kang Woo Lee, Keun Young Park, Byung Joon Kim; Endocrinol Metab. 2011;26(2):142-149. Published online June 1, 2011; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2011.26.2.142

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
Proinflammatory cytokines are one of the causes of diabetes mellitus. However, the exact molecular mechanism by which proinflammatory cytokines induce beta-cell death remains to be clearly elucidated. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) affects the stimulation of insulin secretion and the preservation of beta-cells. Additionally, it may exert an antiapoptotic effect on beta cells; however, the mechanism underlying this effect has yet to be demonstrated. Therefore, we investigated the protective effects of GLP-1 in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mediated beta-cell apoptosis using proinflammatory cytokines. METHODS: To induce ER stress, hamster insulin-secreting tumor (HIT)-T15 cells were treated using a mixture of cytokines. Apoptosis was evaluated via MTT assay, Hoechst 33342 staining, and annexin/propidium iodide (PI) flow cytometry. The mRNA and protein expression levels of ER stress-related molecules were determined via PCR and Western blotting, respectively. Nitric oxide was measured with Griess reagent. The levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) mRNA and protein were analyzed via real-time PCR and Western blot, respectively. iNOS protein degradation was evaluated via immunoprecipitation. We pretreated HIT-T15 cells with exendin (Ex)-4 for 1 hour prior to the induction of stress. RESULTS: We determined that Ex-4 exerted a protective effect through nitric oxide and the modulation of ER stress-related molecules (glucose-regulated protein [GRP]78, GRP94, and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein [CHOP]) and that Ex-4 stimulates iNOS protein degradation via the ubiquitination pathway. Additionally, Ex-4 also induced the recovery of insulin2 mRNA expression in beta cells. CONCLUSION: The results of this study indicate that GLP-1 may protect beta cells against apoptosis through the ubiquitination pathway.

Effects of S-allylcysteine on Oxidative Stress in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats.: Chul Ho Shin, Jahei Ihm; J Korean Endocr Soc. 2008;23(2):129-136. Published online April 1, 2008; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/jkes.2008.23.2.129

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Abstract PDF

BACKGROUND
An increase in oxidative stress is postulated to contribute to the development of diabetic complications and the use of antioxidant therapy could be protective against these processes. This study was performed to investigate the role of the antioxidant S-allylcysteine (SAC), a water-soluble component of aged garlic, for reducing levels of oxidative stress that occurs in diabetic rats. METHODS: SAC (100 mg/head/day) was administered orally to streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats for eight weeks. The effects of SAC on the levels of markers of oxidative stress (malondialdehyde and glutathione) and mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes were measured in the liver and kidney. RESULTS: SAC-fed rats showed lower cholesterol and triacylglyceride levels than untreated diabetic rats. Malondialdehyde levels were increased in the liver and kidney of diabetic rats and SAC administration lowered the levels in both organs. Glutathione levels were lower in the liver and kidney of diabetic rats, and SAC administration restored the glutathione to a level similar in non-diabetic rats. In the liver and kidney of untreated diabetic rats, mRNA expression of catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase were down regulated, and administration of SAC increased expression of these enzymes. CONCLUSION: Our results have shown that administration of SAC to diabetic rats can lower blood lipid levels and alleviate oxidative stress in the diabetic tissues, suggesting that SAC might have beneficial effects in a prevention trial for diabetic complications.

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Effect of Garlic and Aged Black Garlic on Hyperglycemia and Dyslipidemia in Animal Model of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Yeong-Ju Seo, Oh-Cheon Gweon, Ji-Eun Im, Young-Min Lee, Min-Jung Kang, Jung-In Kim
Preventive Nutrition and Food Science.2009; 14(1): 1. CrossRef
Antioxidant effect of garlic and aged black garlic in animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus
Young-Min Lee, Oh-Cheon Gweon, Yeong-Ju Seo, Jieun Im, Min-Jung Kang, Myo-Jeong Kim, Jung-In Kim
Nutrition Research and Practice.2009; 3(2): 156. CrossRef
Effects of Adenophora triphylla Ethylacetate Extract on mRNA Levels of Antioxidant Enzymes in Human HepG2 Cells
Hyun-Jin Choi, Soo-Hyun Kim, Hyun-Taek Oh, Mi-Ja Chung, Cheng-Bi Cui, Seung-Shi Ham
Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.2008; 37(10): 1238. CrossRef

Review Article

Mechanism of Developing Diabetic Vascular Complication by Oxidative Stress.: Bo Hyun Kim, Seok Man Son; J Korean Endocr Soc. 2006;21(6):448-459. Published online December 1, 2006; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/jkes.2006.21.6.448

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Abstract PDF

Macrovascular and microvascular diseases are currently the principal causes of morbidity and mortality in the patients with diabetes mellitus. Oxidative stress has been postulated to be a major contributor to the pathogenesis of these events. There is considerable evidence that many biochemical pathways that are adversely affected by hyperglycemia are associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species, and this ultimately leads to increased oxidative stress in a variety of tissues. In the absence of appropriate compensation by the endogenous antioxidant defense network, increased oxidative stress leads to the activation of stress-sensitive intracellular signaling pathways and the formation of gene products that cause cellular damage and contribute to the late complications of diabetes. Hyperglycemia increases oxidant production by multiple pathways rather than by a single dominant pathway. Glucose can undergo nonenzymatic reactions to form gluco-oxidants and glycated products, which can be oxidants. Metabolism of excessive intracellular glucose can occur by several processes such as aldose reductase, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, activation of NAD(P)H oxidases, and the alteration of the NADPH/NADP ratios. Reactive oxygen species participate in vascular smooth muscle cell growth and migration, modulation of endothelial function, including abnormal endothelium-dependent relaxation and the expression of a proinflammatory phenotype, and modification of the extracellular matrix. All of these events contribute to the development of diabetic microvascular and macrovascular complications, suggesting that the sources of reactive oxygen species and the signaling pathways that they modify may represent important therapeutic targets.

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Original Articles

The Effect of Oxidative Stress on the Proliferation and Differentiation of Human Bone Marrow Stromal Cell-Derived Osteoblasts.: Eun Sook Oh, Ki Hyun Baek, Won Young Lee, Ki Won Oh, Hye Soo Kim, Je Ho Han, Kwang Woo Lee, Ho Young Son, Sung Koo Kang, Moo Il Kang; J Korean Endocr Soc. 2006;21(3):222-232. Published online June 1, 2006; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/jkes.2006.21.3.222

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Abstract PDF

BACKGROUND
The objectives of our study were to assess the effects of oxidative stress on the proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of human bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC)-derived osteoblasts and to explore pathways by which osteoblast cell apoptosis was induced. METHODS: Mononuclear cells including BMSCs were cultured to osteoblastic lineage. Different doses of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were added to the culture media. The colony forming units-fibroblastic (CFU-Fs) were stained with crystal violet and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The MTT assay was done to see the effect of H2O2 on cell viability. The effect of H2O2 on osteocalcin gene expression was determined by RT-PCR. The matrix calcification measurement was performed. FACS analysis was performed to determine the osteoblasts apoptosis. Caspase-3, -8 and 9 activity assay and cytochrome c release were measured. RESULTS: The size and number of ALP (+) CFU-Fs were also decreased by H2O2 treatment. When compared with the control group, H2O2 significantly decreased the total number of cells of each culture well during MTT assay. H2O2 significantly diminished expression of osteocalcin mRNA. N-acetylcystein (NAC) blocked the diminution of cell viability and the inhibition of osteocalcin mRNA expression by H2O2. H2O2 reduced matrix calcification. FACS analysis revealed H2O2 increased percentage of apoptotic cells. Addition of H2O2 resulted in the increase of caspase-9 and -3 activity but not caspase-8, and release of cytochrome c to the cytosol. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that, in primary human BMSCs, oxidative stress inhibits proliferation of stromal cells and inhibits the differentiation to osteoblastic lineage. In addition, oxidative stress induces apoptosis of human BMSC-derived osteoblasts and this may be mediated by mitochondrial pathway of apoptotic signal.

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Antioxidaitve and Differentiation Effects of Artemisia capillaris T. Extract on Hydrogen Peroxide-induced Oxidative Damage of MC3T3-E1 Osteoblast Cells
Jee-Eun Seo, Eun-Sun Hwang, Gun-Hee Kim
Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition.2011; 40(11): 1532. CrossRef

Effects of alpha-Lipoic Acid on Bone Metabolism in Rats with Low Bone Mass.: Jung Min Koh, Hee Sook Lee, Duk Jae Kim, Ghi Su Kim; J Korean Endocr Soc. 2005;20(5):476-487. Published online October 1, 2005; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/jkes.2005.20.5.476

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
Growing evidence has shown a biochemical link between increased oxidative stress and reduced bone density. In our previous study, alpha-lipoic acid (alpha-LA), a thiol antioxidant, suppressed both osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption, and also prevented TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis of osteoblast lineages. The effects of alpha-LA were investigated on bone metabolism in rats with a low bone mass. METHODS: An ovariectomy (OVX) or Talc injection (inflammation-mediated osteopenia, IMO) was performed in 12 week old female Sprague-Dawley rats. Diets containing either 0.3%, 0.5% or 1.0% alpha-LA were administered to the OVX rats for 16 weeks, and to the IMO rats for 21 days. The bone mineral densities (BMD) of the anterior-posterior lumbar spine and total femur were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (Hologic QDR 4500-A), with small animal software. The plasma bone specific alkaline phosphatase activity (BSAP) and urinary free deoxypyridinoline concentration (DPD) were determined using enzyme immunoassay methods. RESULTS: The body weights were significantly decreased in the OVX rats on the diets containing 0.3 and 0.5% alpha-LA than in the OVX control. No significant differences in the BMD at either site were noted between rats administered the diets with or without alpha-LA. However, the administration of various doses of alpha-LA noticeably decreased the level of urinary DPD in both the OVX and IMO rats. High doses of alpha-LA (0.5% and/or 1.0%) also decreased the levels of plasma BSAP in both models. CONCLUSION: Although no increase in BMD was demonstrated by the administration of alpha-LA, these results suggest that alpha-LA suppresses the rates of bone turnover in rats with a low bone mass

Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin and Oxidative Stress in Korean Premenopausal Women.: Young Ju Choi, Jee Young Oh, Young Sun Hong, Yeon Ah Sung; J Korean Endocr Soc. 2004;19(1):48-57. Published online February 1, 2004

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
Low levels of sex hormone-binding globulin(SHBG), an indirect index of androgenicity, are associated with insulin resistance and cardiovascular risk factors. The risk factors of the cardiovascular disease are known to be related to oxidative stress. In recent reports, sex hormones were associated with oxidative stress in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome(PCOS), which is characterized by increased androgenicity and insulin resistance. METHODS: To investigate the relationship between sex hormones and oxidative stress, we examined the association of malondialdehyde(MDA), total antioxidant status(TAS), oxidized low density lipoprotein cholesterol(ox-LDL), and SHBG in 46 Korean premenopausal women. RESULTS: 1. SHBG and MDA levels were not significantly different among the women with NGT and IGT. But, TAS was significantly lower(p=0.034) in the subjects with IGT than in the subjects with NGT. 2. The SHBG level was significantly lower(p=0.036) in obese women than in non-obese women. 3.The SHBG level was significantly inversely correlated with BMI(r=-0.394, p=0.007), post challenge glucose(r=-0.326, p=0.027), waist size(r=-0.323, p=0.029), waist-to-thigh ratio(WTR) (r=-0.308, p=0.037), fasting insulin level(r=-0.387, p=0.008), visceral fat area(VFA)(r=-0.339, p=0.021), and was significantly positively correlated with SI(r=0.397, p=0.008). 4. The SHBG level was significantly inversely correlated with levels of MDA(r=-0.357, p=0.015) and ox-LDL(r=-0.367, p=0.014). 5. In a multiple linear regression analysis, the SHBG level was a significant and independent factor for both MDA and ox-LDL. For TAS, the fasting insulin level and post challenge glucose were significant and independent factors. CONCLUSION: Increased androgenicity assessed by the decrease in serum SHBG levels is associated with the increase in MDA and ox-LDL. These results suggest that increased androgenicity in premenopausal women can contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases via increased oxidative stress.

The Effect of Surgical Stress on Insulin Resistance in Rats.: Soo Bong Choi, Sun Min Park; J Korean Endocr Soc. 1999;14(1):142-146. Published online January 1, 2001

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
It has been reported that surgical stress increased insulin resistance in human. However, there was no research about insulin resistance induced by surgical sttess in Korea. Catheters needed to be inserted in carotid artery and jugular vein of male Sprague Dawley rats to perform euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp procedures. The insertion of catheters in rats is a major surgery, which may increase insulin resistance. The purpose of the study is to determine whether surgical stress influence the insulin resistance. METHODS: The euglycemic hyperinsulinemie clamp procedures were performed 5 hours and 7 days after insertion of catheter in carotid artery and jugular vein. A continuous intravenous infusion of insulin was started at a rate of 12 mU/kg/minute and continued for 2 hours. Twenty-five percent glucose solution was infused through the venous line at a various rate to maintain blood glucose at 5.0-5.6 mmol/L and calculated the glucose disposal rate. Blood was collected from arterious line every 5 minutes and measured serum glucose and insulin levels. RESULTS: Prior to the clamp procedures, serum glucose levels of 5 hours and 7 days after catheter insertion were 29.8 +/- 9.8 and 7.8 +/- 0.9mmol/L, respectively. However, basal serum insulin levels were not different between 5 hours and 7 days after surgery. The glucose disposal rates were remarkably higher in rats who recovered from the surgery (22.0 +/- 7.8 mg/kg/minute) than those who did not (2.2 +/- 2.7 mg/kg/minute). Thus, surgical stress increased insulin resistance in male Sprague Dawley rats. CONCLUSION: Since surgery of catheter insertion increased insulin resistance about 10 times, euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp study should be performed in rats who completely recovered from the surgical stress.

Total radical TRapping antioxidant parameter, calculated.: Kwan Woo Lee, Hyun Man Kim, Ae Hwa Ha; J Korean Endocr Soc. 1999;14(1):134-141. Published online January 1, 2001

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Abstract PDF: BACKGROUND
It has been suggested that diabetic patients are under high oxidative stress and plasma MDA concentration is a reliable marker for oxidative stress. However, some studies showed that plasma MDA is not a good marker for oxidative stress. Reeently, the total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAPc) has been proposed as a marker for the overall antioxidant property of plasma samples. Therefore, in this study, we tried to evaluate whether MDA and TRAPc are reliable markers of the oxidative stress-antioxidant system or not. METHODS: The plasma samples from 67 type 2 diabetic patients and 31 normal subjects were collected. The plasma MDA, protein-bound SH groups, uric acid and vitamin C were determined by fluorophotometry or spectrophotometry. Plasma vitamin E concentration was analyzed by HPLC. Calculated TRAP (TRAPc) were determined by the proposed calculation methods. RESULTS: 1. Diabetic patients had significantly lower TRAPc, compared with normal subjects. 2. SH groups, uric acid, vitamin C and vitamin E were not different between the two groups. 3. MDA and MDA/TG were significantly higher in diabetic subjects. CONCLUSION: From the results of this study, TRAPc seems to be a reliable parameter of overall plasma antioxidant system and the plasma MDA may be used as a marker of oxidative stress, but further long-term logitudinal studies are needed.

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