Endocrinology and Metabolism

Review Articles

Adrenal gland
A Contemporary Approach to the Diagnosis and Management of Adrenal Insufficiency: Suranut Charoensri, Richard J. Auchus; Endocrinol Metab. 2024;39(1):73-82. Published online January 22, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2024.1894

48,230 View
2,270 Download
11 Web of Science
16 Crossref

Adrenal insufficiency (AI) can be classified into three distinct categories based on its underlying causes: primary adrenal disorders, secondary deficiencies in adrenocorticotropin, or hypothalamic suppression from external factors, most commonly glucocorticoid medications used for anti-inflammatory therapy. The hallmark clinical features of AI include fatigue, appetite loss, unintentional weight loss, low blood pressure, and hyponatremia. Individuals with primary AI additionally manifest skin hyperpigmentation, hyperkalemia, and salt craving. The diagnosis of AI is frequently delayed due to the non-specific symptoms and signs early in the disease course, which poses a significant challenge to its early detection prior to an adrenal crisis. Despite the widespread availability of lifesaving glucocorticoid medications for decades, notable challenges persist, particularly in the domains of timely diagnosis while simultaneously avoiding misdiagnosis, patient education for averting adrenal crises, and the determination of optimal replacement therapies. This article reviews recent advancements in the contemporary diagnostic strategy and approaches to optimal treatment for AI.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Determining the comparative pharmacodynamic equivalence of a non-invasive diagnostic test for patients with adrenal insufficiency using a randomised 2-way crossover trial: the STARLIT-3 study protocol
Kathryn Date, Kathleen Baster, Sharon Caunt, Judith Cohen, Miguel Debono, Jane Fearnside, Trevor N Johnson, Peter Laud, Richard J Ross, Rosie Taylor, Charlotte Jane Elder
BMJ Open.2026; 16(2): e112708. CrossRef
Post-ACTH peak cortisol response is associated with genotype in children with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Allie N. Dayno, Marissa J. Kilberg, Erin Gonter, Robert Gallop, Jacob Squicciarini, Carolina Montano, Maria G. Vogiatzi
Frontiers in Endocrinology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Metabolic Effects of Modified‐Release Hydrocortisone Versus Short Acting Conventional Oral Glucocorticoids in Adrenal Insufficiency: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
Mohammad Ehab Abdelsattar, Mai Abdallah, Ola Khaled, Heba Aboeldahab, Nour Mohyeldin Ahmed, Yusuf Abdeen, Nada Altayeb, Yousef Mousa, Ahmed Gaballa Ali, Mohammed Tarek Hasan
Clinical Endocrinology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Adrenal insufficiency in severely wounded men with combat gunshot injury
N.Yu. Seliukova, K.V. Misiura, E.M. Khoroshun, V.V. Makarov, V.V. Nehoduiko, O.I. Zalyubovska, E. Szucsik
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENDOCRINOLOGY (Ukraine).2025; 20(8): 573. CrossRef
A deep learning algorithm for automated adrenal gland segmentation on non-contrast CT images
Fanxing Meng, Tuo Zhang, Yukun Pan, Xiaojing Kan, Yuwei Xia, Mengyuan Xu, Jin Cai, Fangbin Liu, Yinghui Ge
BMC Medical Imaging.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Metabolic and endocrine dysfunctions in traumatic brain injury: Implications for cognitive recovery and therapeutic strategies
Jigar Manilal Haria, Naveen Kumar Singh, Jayballabh Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar Jain, DattaSai Pamidimarri
Behavioural Brain Research.2025; 493: 115697. CrossRef
Recurrent Hyponatremia Mimicking Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion: A Case of Partial Empty Sella Syndrome With Isolated Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Deficiency
Revathi Rajendran, Amirthalingeswaran Govindan
Cureus.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Management of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency and Overt Hypothyroidism in an HIV‐Positive Patient in a Resource‐Limited Setting: A Case Report
Majani Edward, Witness John, Dominick M. Raphael
Clinical Case Reports.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
A practical approach to diagnosis and treatment in children with primary adrenal insufficiency
Donatella Capalbo, Sara Illiano, Sara Vasaturo, Paola Lorello, Francesca Romana Rotondo, Raffaella Di Mase, Carla Bizzarri, Mariacarolina Salerno
European Journal of Endocrinology.2025; 193(5): R45. CrossRef
The Effect of Whitening Creams Usage on the Adrenal Gland 
Fadheelah Salman Azeez, Noor Faisal Noaman, Ahmed Neema AL-Mussawy
F1000Research.2025; 14: 1434. CrossRef
Unintentional discontinuation of topical corticosteroids after emergency hospitalization can exacerbate adrenal insufficiency
Hiroya Kitsunai, Yumika Watanabe, Eisuke Nishikawa, Fumika Maruyama, Hiroshi Nomoto
Endocrine Journal.2025; 72(12): 1377. CrossRef
Diagnostic pharmacology: Drugs that uncover diseases
K. Saranraj, Gollapudi Poojitha Siri Chandana
National Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics.2025; 3(3): 197. CrossRef
Post-Traumatic Hypopituitarism
Nissa Blocher
Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports.2024; 12(4): 405. CrossRef
Severe Fatigue in Uncontrolled Asthma: Contributing Factors and Impact of Rehabilitation
Karin B. Fieten, Lianne ten Have, Linde N. Nijhof, Lucia Rijssenbeek-Nouwens, Anneke ten Brinke
The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice.2024; 12(12): 3292. CrossRef
Adrenal Insufficiency in Patients with Beta Thalassemia: A Meta-Analysis
Christos Savvidis, Dimitra Ragia, Sophia Delicou, Aikaterini Xydaki, Manfredi Rizzo, Ioannis Ilias
Medicina.2024; 60(10): 1571. CrossRef
長期間の呼吸管理および遷延する低血圧から診断に至ったACTH単独欠損症の1例(A case of isolated ACTH deficiency diagnosed after long–term respiratory management and persistent hypotension)
古谷慎太郎, 神山治郎, 多喜亘, 山本大輔, 五木田昌士, 田口茂正, 清田和也
Nihon Kyukyu Igakukai Zasshi: Journal of Japanese Association for Acute Medicine.2024; 35(12): 965. CrossRef

Adrenal gland
Molecular Mechanisms of Primary Aldosteronism: Sergei G. Tevosian, Shawna C. Fox, Hans K. Ghayee; Endocrinol Metab. 2019;34(4):355-366. Published online December 23, 2019; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3803/EnM.2019.34.4.355

14,392 View
175 Download
7 Web of Science
7 Crossref

Abstract PDF PubReader ePub

Primary aldosteronism (PA) results from excess production of mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone by the adrenal cortex. It is normally caused either by unilateral aldosterone-producing adenoma (APA) or by bilateral aldosterone excess as a result of bilateral adrenal hyperplasia. PA is the most common cause of secondary hypertension and associated morbidity and mortality. While most cases of PA are sporadic, an important insight into this debilitating disease has been derived through investigating the familial forms of the disease that affect only a minor fraction of PA patients. The advent of gene expression profiling has shed light on the genes and intracellular signaling pathways that may play a role in the pathogenesis of these tumors. The genetic basis for several forms of familial PA has been uncovered in recent years although the list is likely to expand. Recently, the work from several laboratories provided evidence for the involvement of mammalian target of rapamycin pathway and inflammatory cytokines in APAs; however, their mechanism of action in tumor development and pathophysiology remains to be understood.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Mineralocorticoid Receptor and Aldosterone: Interaction Between NR3C2 Genetic Variants, Sex, and Age in a Mixed Cohort
Mahyar Heydarpour, Wasita W Parksook, Luminita H Pojoga, Gordon H Williams, Jonathan S Williams
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism.2024; 110(1): e140. CrossRef
Subunit-Specific Developmental Roles of PI3K in SF1-Expressing Cells
My Khanh Q. Huynh, Sang Hee Lyoo, Dong Joo Yang, Yun-Hee Choi, Ki Woo Kim
Endocrinology and Metabolism.2024; 39(5): 793. CrossRef
Proteomic analysis of urinary extracellular vesicles highlights specific signatures for patients with primary aldosteronism
Lorenzo Bertolone, Annalisa Castagna, Marcello Manfredi, Domenica De Santis, Francesca Ambrosani, Elisa Antinori, Paolo Mulatero, Elisa Danese, Emilio Marengo, Elettra Barberis, Mariangela Veneri, Nicola Martinelli, Simonetta Friso, Francesca Pizzolo, Oli
Frontiers in Endocrinology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
Focus on adrenal and related causes of hypertension in childhood and adolescence: Rare or rarely recognized?
Flávia A. Costa-Barbosa, Rafael B. Giorgi, Claudio E. Kater
Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
Diseases caused by mutations in the Na+/K+ pump α1 gene ATP1A1
Elisa D. Biondo, Kerri Spontarelli, Giovanna Ababioh, Lois Méndez, Pablo Artigas
American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology.2021; 321(2): C394. CrossRef
Aldosterone Inhibits In Vitro Myogenesis by Increasing Intracellular Oxidative Stress via Mineralocorticoid Receptor
Jin Young Lee, Da Ae Kim, Eunah Choi, Yun Sun Lee, So Jeong Park, Beom-Jun Kim
Endocrinology and Metabolism.2021; 36(4): 865. CrossRef
Progress on Genetic Basis of Primary Aldosteronism
Izabela Karwacka, Łukasz Obołończyk, Sonia Kaniuka-Jakubowska, Michał Bohdan, Krzysztof Sworczak
Biomedicines.2021; 9(11): 1708. CrossRef

First
Prev
Page of 1
Next
Last

Search